The Scope of the Course:
The aim of the course is to familiarize students with the various colored materials (organic and inorganic, natural and synthetic) that have been used over the centuries in the fields of painting, decoration and dying. The relevant historical overview starts from the oldest known applications of pigments (e.g. ocher & charred materials in rock paintings, prehistoric burial customs, etc.), includes information about ancient and medieval pigments / dyes, and ends up in the middle of the 20th century, a period in which many of the most widely used synthetic pigments / dyes are emerging. Moreover, the origins and stages of processing of natural pigments are described in detail along with the production of synthetic ones. The relevant discussion is enriched by quoting data from primary bibliographic sources such as the ancient Greek, Latin and medieval technical literature. Special mention is made of plant and animal organic dyes and the relevant lake pigments that were produced from them. A separate section is devoted to issues pertaining to miscibility / compatibility between different pigments as well as between pigments and specific binders, while the mechanisms of alteration and discoloration of various pigments and dyes are briefly presented. Also, the basic methods of minerals processing for pigment preparation are demonstrated (grinding, rinsing, differential precipitation, etc.), and, occasionally, specific methods of synthetic pigments preparation (e.g. lake) are showcased. Finally, a reference is made as regards the analytical techniques used for the identification of pigments / dyes (including demonstration of real specimens), which will also include instructions on sampling techniques and discussion of sampling permission issues.
Course objectives:
Upon completion of this course students will:
i. Know the nature and composition of mineral pigments, how they were formed (geologically), and the main methods of their extraction and processing
ii. Know the origin and composition of natural and artificial dyes, how they are formed and how they can be transformed to lake pigments
iii. Know the most important artificial pigments, when they were first manufactured and the main relevant methods of production
iv. Have understood the mechanisms of pigments’ decay, the behavior of pigments mixtures, and their compatibility with different binders.
v. Know how the micromorphological characteristics of the pigment grains (and consequently pigment processing) may affect their color
vi. Know which analytical techniques are used for pigments’ identification and provenancing
vii. Know the methods of sampling from cultural heritage objects in order to determine dyes and pigments, as well as the current status as regards sampling permissions.
STUDENT ASSESSMENT
Language of evaluation: Greek
Students’ evaluation (100%): preparation of a written essay and its presentation.
The relevant instructions are posted in the e-class of the course in due time.
SUGGESTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Arney J. S., Jacobs A. J. and Newman R., (1979), The Influence of Oxygen on the Fading of Organic Colorants, A.I.C. Journal 18(2), 108-117.
2. Burgio L. and Clark R.J.H., (2001), Library of FT-Raman spectra of pigments, minerals, pigment media and varnishes, and supplement to existing library of Raman spectra of pigments with visible excitation, Spectrochimica Acta Part A 57, 1491-521.
3. Cardon, D., (2007), Natural Dyes – Sources, Tradition, Technology, Science. Archetype Publications Ltd., London.
4. Crew, P. C. (1982), The Influence of Mordant on the Light fastness of Yellow Natural Dyes, A.I.C. Journal 21(2), 43-53.
5. Διονύσιος εκ Φουρνά, (1997), Ερμηνεία της ζωγραφικής τέχνης, εκδοθείσα υπό Α. Παπαδοπούλου-Κεραμέως, Πετρούπολις 1909, επανέκδοση Κ. Σπανός, Αθήνα.
6. Eastaugh N., Walsh V., Chaplin T. Siddall R., (2008), Pigment Compendium, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
7. Fereday, G., (2003), Natural Dyes, British Museum Press: London.
8. Gettens R. J., Stout G. L., (1966), Painting Materials: A short encyclopaedia, Dover, New York.
9. Green, L.R., Daniels, V., (1990), “Identification of mordants by using analytical techniques”, in Walton Rogers P. (ed), Dyes in History and Archaeology, papers presented at the 9th annual meeting, York 1990. Textile Research Associates: York.
10. Harley R. D., (2001), Artists’ pigments c. 1600 – 1835, Archetype Publications, London.
11. Hradil D., Grygar T., Hradilová J., Bezdička P., (2003), Clay and iron oxide pigments in the history of painting, Applied Clay Science 22, 223-36.
12. Kakoulli I., (2002), Late Classical and Hellenistic painting techniques and materials: a review of the technical literature, Reviews in Conservation 3, 56-67.
13. Kirby J., Saunders D., (2004), Fading and colour change of prussian blue: methods of manufacture and the influence of extenders, National Gallery Technical Bulletin 25, 73-99.
14. Kirby, J., Spring, M., Higgitt, C., (2005) The Technology of Red Lake Pigment Manufacture: Study of the Dyestuff Substrate, National Gallery Technical Bulletin 26, 71–87.
15. Mastrotheodoros, G., Beltsios, K. G., Zacharias, N., (2010), Assessment of the production of antiquity pigments through experimental treatment of ochres and other iron based precursors, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry 10(1), 37–59
16. Mastrotheodoros G.P., Beltsios K.G., Bassiakos Y., (2020), On the blue and green pigments of post-byzantine Greek icons, Archaeometry, 62(4), 774-795.
17. Mastrotheodoros G.P., Beltsios K.G., Bassiakos Y., (2021), On the red and yellow pigments of post-byzantine Greek icons, Archaeometry, 63(4), 753-778.
18. Melo, M. J., (2009), “History of Natural Dyes in the Ancient Mediterranean World”, in T. Bechtold, T. and Mussak R, (eds), (2009), Handbook of Natural colorants, Wiley Series in Renewable Resources, Wiley.
19. Natural Dyes and Pigments in the Mediterranean Area, διαθέσιμο στο: www.medcoloutech.org
20. Orna M.V., Low M.J.D., Baer N.S., (1980), Synthetic blue pigments: ninth to sixteenth centuries. I. Literature, Studies in Conservation 25, 53-63.
21. Padfield, T., Landi, Sh., (1961), The fastness to light of the natural dyes. Studies in Conservation, 11, 181-198.
22. Pelosi C., Agresti G., Santamaria U., Mattei E., (2010), Artificial yellow pigments: production and characterization through spectroscopic methods of analysis, e-Preservation Science 7, 108-15.
23. Plesters J., (1993), “Ultramarine Blue, Natural and Artificial”, στο Artist’s Pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics, τόμος 2, εκδότης A. Roy, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 37-65.
24. Popelka-Filcoff, R. S. et al., (2008), Elemental analysis and characterization of ochre sources from Southern Arizona, Journal of Archaeological Science 35(3), 752–762.
25. Riederer J., (1997), “Egyptian Blue”, στο Artist’s Pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics, τόμος 3, εκδότης E. W. FitzHugh, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 23-45.
26. Santopadre P., Verità M., (2006), A study of smalt and its conservation problems in two sixteenth-century wall paintings in Rome, Studies in Conservation 51, 29-40.
27. Schweppe, H., Winter, J., (1997) “Madder and Alizarin”, στο Artists Pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics, Volume 3. Washington: National Gallery of Art, 109–142.
28. Winter J., FitzHugh E.W., (2007), “Pigments based on carbon”, στο Artist’s Pigments: A handbook of their history and characteristics, τόμος 4, εκδότης B. H. Berrie, National Gallery of Art, Washington και Archetype publications London, 1-37.
29. Wouters, J., (1985), High performance liquid chromatography of anthraquinones: analysis of plant and insect extracts and dyed textiles, Studies in Conservation 30, 119-128.
– JOURNALS:
1. Studies in Conservation, Taylor & Francis.
2. Dyes and Pigments, Elsevier.
3. Journal of Cultural Heritage, Elsevier.
4. Archaeometry, Willey.
5. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, Springer.
6. Journal of the American Institute of Conservation, Taylor & Francis.
7. International Journal of Conservation Science, Romanian Inventors Forum.
8. Journal of Archaeological Science, Elsevier.